Locating Expert Knowledge: Yellow Pages
by Noel Angulo Marcial
Mexico National Polytechnic Institute
Educational Innovation Magazine
September 2007
Summary
The concepts of expert and yellow pages are described in the context of knowledge management and their relevance in the framework of shared knowledge and access to tacit knowledge within intelligent organizations is highlighted.
Keywords
Yellow Pages; Directory of experts; Shared knowledge; Tacit knowledge; Experts; Expert knowledge; Communities of experts; Knowledge management; Smart organizations
Introduction
At the beginning of this new century, some organizations have realized that their physical infrastructure and financial resources are no longer sufficient to generate sustainable advantages over time and focus their attention on intangible assets as potential sources of value. However, other organizations have become aware of the potential that human talent represents and its forms of expression and transmission as its intellectual production and the modes of interaction that extend its benefits to the entire organization.
Lorenzo Chiquero (2007) questions why companies do not know the potential of their workers and warns that they may not be aware of what they are losing, the value they stop contributing and adds:
The fear of not knowing what to do with people with high potential, with talent, overwhelms them and slows down any decision to fully know their potential.
Knowledge management makes visible and channels intangible assets that generate value for the organization through the identification, acquisition, structuring and transmission of knowledge, although strictly speaking, what is transmitted is only data and information, which are documented, contextualized and In an enabling environment they contribute to promoting learning and generating knowledge, always with different levels of achievement due to particular experiences and differences in the way of perceiving and processing the data by the different members that make up the organization (cf. Castilla la Mancha 2006 ).
Knowledge management deals with the volume and flow of knowledge in organizations, as a support for their activities and incorporates the form of their organization to give added value and enable their rational exploitation. Its main objective is to convert information into knowledge and knowledge into results, articulating the different sources of information and knowledge, internal and external; thus avoiding unnecessary duplication and underutilization of information, in addition to identifying the structural and relational resources of knowledge and human potential of experts, with the key knowledge that the organization needs, activity that relies on the application of methods and strategies to make that knowledge sharable, while the knowledge of the critical mission of the organization resides primarily in the memory of its experts (Coffey, 2002; Hernández and Martí, 2006; Pernas, 2000; University of Amsterdam, 2007).
Javier Martínez Aldanondo establishes a clear association between knowledge of the organization and the quality of experts as carriers of knowledge:
Knowledge is not an object or a content. We can talk about gigabytes of information, thousands of pages of information, hundreds of websites with information but we cannot speak in the same terms of knowledge. In general, the knowledge is accumulated by the experts and therefore the organizations have it inside, although they do not know how to identify it and even less exploit it.
Despite the widespread belief that access to knowledge sources is sufficient for appropriation, knowledge is not transmitted in the same way as water in communicating vessels, and access to the same data does not necessarily match the levels of Information and knowledge. A component that operates as a catalyst to advance organizational knowledge is the figure of the expert. It is said that an intelligent organization is the one who knows who has the expert competence and where it resides; However, it is necessary to create the conditions to access and share that knowledge internally, at the time and place where it is needed. The expert person, if he has the right environment, can contribute through interaction, knowledge that can be documented, filtered and categorized to put them at the service of the organization (cf. Meta4 2001)
Expert knowledge management implies the incorporation of tools and methods to identify, locate, represent and organize the domains of knowledge available and the profiles of experts to enable any person in the organization with specific information or knowledge needs to interact with the person more qualified to help you solve problems. The introduction of such tools creates the conditions of infrastructure for the exchange of knowledge and enables access to undocumented knowledge, which contributes to increasing human capital.
With the purpose of knowing the experiences of other institutions that have been in charge of identifying the expert knowledge and making it available to its members, different websites were consulted that show the yellow pages as the tool indicated within the operation management scheme of the knowledge, although also, the lack of clarity and understanding of this term and others as an expert and expertise or expert competence is notorious, so it is considered pertinent to address its meaning and application coverage in an integral manner in order to specify some concepts and contribute to the culture of knowledge and information management.
Who are the experts?
Niels Bohr, the famous atomic model creator scientist, proposed the following definition:
An expert is a person who has made all possible mistakes that can be made in a certain field of knowledge (Bohr 2005).
His position, although of a reductionist nature, shows the components of experience and practice in the characterization of expert competence.
However, it is necessary to define the term expert, which is derived from the Latin expertus, which means experienced; referring to the connoisseur of some subject or matter; In addition, it is used as a qualifying adjective of practical, skillful or experienced.
Experience, in turn, is a word derived from the Latin experient refiereaand refers to the fact that someone had felt, known or witnessed something. Closer to the purpose of this article is the meaning of prolonged practice, which refers to a certain person with the knowledge or ability to do something (cf. Royal Spanish Academy).
The words expertise and expertise are frequently used to refer to the condition of gathering expert knowledge; however, these do not appear in the dictionary of the Spanish language. The word expert, derived from the Latin perit pera, which means wisdom, practice, experience and skill in a science or art and from this expert, which some use as a synonym for expert, although sometimes the words expert and expert have the particular connotation, associated with the legal field, expert, which in this context means experienced wise, practical in a science or art or a person who holds this quality in some matter through a title conferred by the state, and that by possessing special theoretical and practical knowledge, they inform the judge under oath about litigious points (Orta, 2003).
For Robert R. Hoffman (1998), an expert is:
The experienced person who stands out or stands out from their peers, considered as such by their peers, due to their reliable performance, which makes evident the possession of skills and effort economy and that operates effectively with infrequent cases. An expert is also someone who has specialized skills and knowledge, derived from extensive experience and practice in an activity or knowledge.
Andrés Pérez Ortega (2006), proposes as a distinctive characteristic of experts, the domain of a discipline and its ability to communicate it in a clear and understandable way. In addition, he warns that this domain is achieved with a combination of experience, education and research and not necessarily as a result of extraordinary creativity but learning with the technique of trial and error, specializing and dealing with the same problems on a recurring basis until they reach shape a repertoire of solutions for 90% of the situations that you might face in your field of competence.
Philip E. Ross (2006), notes that:
Without a demonstrable superiority over others, there can be no true experts and warns that only through considerable and continuous effort is it possible to achieve mastery of a field of knowledge or skill (be it the game of chess, the interpretation of a musical instrument or the practice of a sport). One aspect in which all theorists of expert knowledge agree is the fact that great effort is required to build these structures in the mind.
Several authors propose a decade of training and practice with a certain particular domain before a person can be considered an expert and this position is based on the idea that processes are automated with practice, so that they require less effort and they become faster and autonomous and less accessible at the conscious level. Another theory establishes that deliberate practice constitutes an important factor in the acquisition of conduct and expert competence (cf. Guilar, 2003; p. 207-212)
Chase and Simon (1973), coined a law known as the 10-year rule, which states that, it takes approximately 10 years to acquire mastery in some field or activity, and even prodigy children like Gauss in mathematics, Mozart in music and Bobby Fischer in chess, should have made an equivalent effort.
John R. Hayes (1989), investigated the time needed to reach a perfect level of execution, examining the development of a career in different fields that require creative thinking, among others, music, painting and poetry and found the behavior consistent and demonstrated that even the most talented individuals require many years of preparation before producing the work that accredits them as deserving of great reputation.
On the other hand, practice and experience are necessary but not sufficient components, according to Mario López de Ávila (2006), who states that:
The recognition of the quality of expert is not always deserved and is not always recognized to those who in justice deserve it, therefore, in the absence of quantitative measures or objective criteria to specify what an expert is.
López de Ávila proposes:
[…] consider expert only to those who demonstrate it with their judgments and, most importantly, with the results of their practice on each occasion when their expertise is tested.
How do you recognize an expert?
For María Alejandra Ochoa (2004), an expert is:
Someone capable of solving a type of problem that other people, including their profession or specialty, cannot solve effectively and efficiently.
The author proposes as characteristics of an expert those who have expertise, a dimension linked to their high performance to solve problems of their competence successfully and quickly; to those who have the capacity to manipulate symbols and solve problems of a knowledge domain; that solve complex problems and with a certain degree of difficulty; that have the capacity to reformulate or reuse their knowledge; that reason about themselves and their own processes and their own decisions, that they have the capacity to build their own chain of reasoning and that they perform a particular task; that is, they interpret, diagnose, monitor and predict.
For José Portillo Rodríguez (2005), an expert is:
That individual who has recognized specific skills and knowledge about a certain field of activity of knowledge; that is, that it holds a large share of cultural capital but also of social capital, a condition that allows it to state competent propositions, demonstrate specific skills, or impose socially a point of view recognized as transcendent in relation to individual and singular points of view.
According to Mario López de Ávila Muñoz (2006), a Spanish consultant, the expert is recognized for his ability to:
- Provide a non-trivial definition of a problem in their field of knowledge.
- Develop a non-trivial solution for that problem that produces a result far superior to that
I would give the solution of a non-expert person.
- Perform the above actions efficiently, in a minimum time, with resource savings.
Raquel Guilar Corbi (2003, p.326) suggests that:
A fundamental characteristic of experts is their best memory for aspects that are significant due to the greater knowledge they have in their domain. However, their quality of experts is not based on the quantity but on the quality and relevance of their knowledge, which allows them a direct interpretation of the facts. The expert has a well organized structure of specific knowledge; and it is that qualitative organization that exerts a major influence on the acquisition of cognitive skills and expert competence.
Several authors agree to point to the competition in information as an attribute of the true experts by noting that they are more selective in the information they acquire and are able to obtain it in less structured situations, because they focus on the relevant information and can quantify it and categorize the problems, based on the solution procedures that lie in their long-term memory.
In addition, they have the ability to accumulate new reusable information, with the possibility of obtaining access to it when necessary. To this must be added their ability to search, retrieve or generate information depending on the needs, purpose and context of application. The expert knows how to organize and make intelligent use of information, unlike ordinary people, who, despite having more and more information and tools to access it, is unable to process it and give it added value to convert it into useful knowledge. (Guilar, 2003; Pérez, 2006; Sternberg and Frensch, 1992; University of New England, 2004)
Susan R. Goldman, et al. (2003), establish the following characteristics to identify experts:
A well-developed knowledge in their domain fields, with important implications for what they perceive, represent and remember when they process information, and for the flexibility with which they adapt to different tasks and learning situations in their field. The knowledge of the experts is nourished by rich mental representations and, coherent and consistent mental models about the relationships between events or parts of a phenomenon, have self-monitoring skills that allow them to evaluate and resolve relationships between different sources of information, in addition of a high level of competence in the interpretation of facts and procedures for their transfer and application to other situations.
Communities of Experts
Although characteristics and distinctive attributes of the expert have been cited, Harold Jarche (2006), questions the permanence of the expert competence, noting that:
Knowledge workers are like actors, who will only be as good as their last performance has been and therefore, they are experts only for a fleeting moment.
The above can be expressed as the difficulty of maintaining the status of expert individually in the face of the increasing volume of knowledge available, which is derived from the author’s textual comment:
Perhaps the individual expert competition is gradually being replaced by the collaborative expert competition […]. Collaboration allows individuals with expertise in certain exclusive areas to obtain better results in less time.
Organizations are increasingly complex, while the interdependence of the disciplinary fields as well as the volume of information and knowledge are increasing, so that the figure of the expert working in isolation is no longer sufficient, it is necessary to encourage meetings, dialogue and peer collaboration to maintain expert competence and derive benefits from it.
Virtual communities provide this space of interrelation and knowledge between experts and organizations specialized in various thematic areas and allow fluid and confidential communication between the parties, with the consequent added value (cf. Alonso).
The networks make possible the intercommunication of experts working on the same subject, regardless of time and physical space, to access information, advice or help. Collaborative work among peers is based on the communication and exchange of information and the interaction that supports the collective construction of knowledge. In the virtual space it is possible to access a great diversity of services, which constitute sources of knowledge, not accessible by conventional means such as those indicated (cf. Salinas 1998):
- Specialized information services of interest to each academic and professional field.
- Exchange of new knowledge arising from both basic and applied research and the
- professional practice through digital magazines, electronic conferences and discussion forums.
- Collaboration to increase the capacity of organizations to solve complex problems. In addition to the exchange of information, the exchange of ideas, experiences and discussion about possible solutions to the difficulties that occur in common spaces or fields considered related.
- Collaboration to create new knowledge. Different people work together for long periods to achieve shared goals, such as writing a common article, or conducting research and innovation projects by teams of teachers from different centers or institutions.
Yellow Pages
The usual tendency at the time of structuring the directory of an organization consists, most of the time, in representing its hierarchical structure; which is still in force and allows to locate the personnel and the management cadres with relative ease; However, when it comes to locating and sharing the information and knowledge of an organization, the design of the board of directors must consider a structure that reflects human capital broken down by categories of knowledge and determined by the different areas of expertise and mainly by their experience and expertise (1) and not because of its grouping into addresses, sub-directorates and departments.
Organizations that exploit knowledge rationally and intensively to solve their problems on a daily basis and improve their products and services, will become intelligent organizations, organizations that learn from mistakes as well as from their own and others’ successes. A learning organization is able to create or acquire knowledge and use it to modify its behavior and reflect new interpretations or new thought patterns that give it advantages (cf. Nieves and León 2001). A condition for accessing the quality of intelligent organization is to have fully identified its internal resources and capabilities in terms of knowledge and experience. Before looking outside, introspective analysis is appropriate to detect competencies, specialized knowledge, domains of expertise and forms of relationship that allow socializing and increasing that knowledge.
The term yellow pages refers to a directory of experts, its name is due to its analogy with the yellow section of the telephone directory that lists organizations by the type of service they offer. The learning organization needs to accurately locate the expert knowledge available within its performance space, this is the function of the yellow pages that transcend the traditional structures of the directories to offer the possibility of bringing peers closer and identifying opportunities for have assistance and advice within the organization itself. This function is emphasized by Graciela Perrone and Andrea Masri (2005), pointing out that knowledge management is key in making informed decisions, so it is necessary to have instruments that allow each member of the organization to know where to find knowledge, and in that sense, you should not only know what work to refer to, but know who to ask.
The yellow pages should not be confused with the concept of curriculum vitae, the yellow pages form a continuously updated directory of the organization’s know-how, José Luis Molina and Monserrat Marsal Serra (2001), indicate that:
Through the yellow pages the people of the organization are obliged to reconsider and reflect on professional knowledge, so that at the same time they serve to press and calibrate the dynamism of the organization ”, the same authors summarize in three lines the construction of the yellow pages: establish a base file, install an intelligent search engine and start up a tracking and recognition system.
The organization’s directory of experts can be considered as a type of knowledge map (2). While the key knowledge is dispersed throughout the organization, the directory of experts helps to overcome the limitations in the identification of knowledge based on formal organizational charts, hierarchical ranks, titles or jobs. The main objective of the directory is to locate and individualize people who have tacit knowledge relevant to the organization. These maps provide the “location coordinates” of the knowledge, although they do it in a referential way, they constitute the basis for contacting and interacting with those who have the knowledge and make it accessible to a large number of people, encouraging collaboration, dialogue and organizational learning (cf. Falivene and Silva 2003).
The yellow pages constitute an accessible online tool that records, in addition to the basic contact data, a description of the knowledge that people have, professional interests and the successful projects or good practices in which they have participated, highlighting their experience and competence expert More than a repertoire of knowledge is a list of who are carriers of knowledge. They are designed to identify the sources of knowledge within an organization. At the same time that they are useful to show the available knowledge they also contribute to identify gaps, that is, the knowledge that must be obtained from external sources. The yellow pages allow to identify, precisely, sources and networks of experience, so they are used to manage knowledge, grouping them into categories, areas of expertise or specialization throughout the organization. (Ponce and Falcon 2005; Lara 2002; Macedo 2000b; Meroño 2003).
Creating the yellow pages
When deciding to create a repertoire of expert knowledge should be considered some recommendations (cf. Cosude, 2007):
Establish your objectives clearly and precisely: what purpose will the yellow pages serve?
- Share the responsibility for its construction and updating with the users of the yellow pages
- Balance formal and informal information. Personal information, complemented by a photograph, will help build contacts.
- Incorporate name, job position, team, job description, current projects, professional qualifications, curriculum vitae, areas of knowledge and specialization, areas of interest, important contacts (internal and external), intellectual production, membership in professional associations, belonging to knowledge networks or communities of practice and contact information.
- Incorporate mechanisms for immediate interaction through the network.
- Design registration formats to facilitate capture and recovery.
- Maintain your update continuously and define the update periods.
- Implement actions aimed at motivating people’s curiosity and promoting their consultation.
Tacit and Explicit Knowledge
In the knowledge management environment two types of knowledge have been established, (3). Explicit knowledge refers to a susceptible form of document and relatively easy to disseminate through digital libraries or full-text databases (such as instructions, books, articles, guides, essays or patents). On the other hand, tacit knowledge, which because it is intimately linked to the experiences, experiences, beliefs and values of those who own them, is difficult to transfer, since it requires human contact between those who have and those who want to access it.
Strategies for managing tacit knowledge revolve mainly around the yellow pages, which should be designed to foster organizational culture and informal contacts between members of an organization. With this resource we can expedite the knowledge needs, for example, if we need at any given time knowledge of programming on a server or learning objects, we can find in the yellow pages the experts in the subject, along with their number telephone and email to contact them (cf. Canals and Pérez, 2001).
Due to the nature of its content, the yellow pages also operate as a support tool in the management of collaborative communities, by identifying common interests and peer affinity, allowing cohesion and trust among participants in virtual communities, fostering cross-sectional exchange. of knowledge and intensive dissemination of information in specialized fields of knowledge and, fundamentally important, identify who can lead and guide collaborative networking.
Final Comments: Human Component
Having people and equipment, technically and mentally prepared to generate and use knowledge better than other organizations, is a necessary but not sufficient condition, in addition to the attitude and competence, the development and availability of logical mechanisms and instruments for creation, recruitment, is required. Storage, location, selective access, transmission and interpretation of knowledge and information to become an organization that learns from its past experiences and intensive interaction with the bearers of knowledge either with people or with work teams. But it is not enough for people to learn, it is necessary that they convert the acquired knowledge into a useful asset for the organization, only if this condition is met we will face a real process of organizational learning (cf. Macedo, 2000a).
The success of a knowledge management system undoubtedly requires the figure of the expert, who in addition to providing information to the organization as a whole knows where to find knowledge and helps to ensure the flow of information and socialize knowledge in a way that it is available, easy to locate and accessible at all times, regardless of location. But physical access is not enough, it is necessarily required of the interaction of the expert with his peers and the possession of skills for the analysis and reworking of knowledge in such a way that it becomes action or innovation. It also requires the willingness and attitude to share knowledge, (4) as well as a climate of trust and collaboration that encourages everyone to explain and share their ideas and what can be useful to improve the results of their work (Rosa, 2000).
The mere fact of having an expert registry does not necessarily imply that it will be used by the community to which it is intended, nor does it solve the problem of the relevance of the data. Yellow pages should be kept updated periodically. People are constantly changing location, assuming different functions and incorporating new knowledge and skills. It is convenient that these are articulated with the human resources system, which ensures that work details and contact information are updated automatically, otherwise, if people have the responsibility to update their records, a Reminder process in the system, such as an email sent to users who have not updated their records since a certain date (cf. Cosude, 2007).
Having the infrastructure to share and redistribute information and knowledge does not favor organizational learning unless there is an attitude and will. In this context, the advantage of having technology is unavoidable as seen in the conditions suggested in the book by Rudy Rugles (2000), Advantages of knowledge management, text that I have adapted to highlight the relationship between action human and computer support:
Technology constitutes a decisive part in the access to internal and external information, but the most important is the human component, so that the importance of intellectual capacity is estimated at 80% and the importance of information technology only 20% is assigned.
Gathering information, synthesizing it, reflecting on it, discussing it, reworking it and transforming it into knowledge is the fundamental contribution of the human component, an essential activity for knowledge management; technology has to support that human activity but in its quality as a tool and not as an objective; However, the articulation of human activity with technology makes it possible to:
- Have a taxonomy to categorize, organize and place tacit and explicit knowledge in an extensive knowledge base.
- Have a person with whom to interact, to answer questions and help transfer information and generate organizational knowledge.
- Access to a technological platform to move and share ideas, information and knowledge and relatively easy to disseminate through digital libraries or databases with full texts within the organization.
For Hernando Zorrilla (1998), organizations aimed at an effective management of their knowledge, require a high dose of human effort, which is costly but better suited in some aspects of knowledge management. When one seeks to understand knowledge, interpret it in a broad context, combine it with other types of information, or synthesize various unstructured forms of knowledge, humans are the best choice, while computers and communication systems are good for other tasks such as the capture, transformation and distribution of highly structured knowledge.
The introduction of knowledge management in organizations causes the revaluation of the figure of the expert and calls them to share their specialized knowledge and contribute their experience beyond what had traditionally been achieved. The directory of experts contributes precisely to that experience and know-how to transcend the individual level and expand throughout the organization, thereby fostering its full use and moving towards an intelligent organization; that is, in which its members, by sharing information and knowledge, synergistically and symbiotic increase their ability to solve problems and generate the results that support the objectives of the organization.
With expert knowledge management, it is proposed that:
- One should Identify and revalue the talents of the organization and incorporate them in the management of knowledge and information, not as an end in itself but as a strategy to support the fulfillment of its objectives.
- Active participation of the experts of the organization be motivated by their explicit recognition in the promotion system, and stimuli.
- Incorporation of expert knowledge in the processes of integrated knowledge and information management with effects on increasing the intellectual capital of the organization and the quality and innovation of its products or services.
- Strategic articulation of people, knowledge, processes and tasks
- Rational introduction of information technology to enhance the action of experts and
- extend its impact throughout the organization.
Who decides what expert knowledge we should recover?
This is a tough question. For example, speaking of education, regardless of the expert competence in a subject or in an area of research or educational management, every educational institution requires competence in different fields, whether in object programming, design and operation of instruments evaluation, information analysis, environmental monitoring, strategy games, competitive intelligence, folk dance, standardization, quality management, document management, online form design, critical thinking, information management, interface design, moderation of virtual forums, etc.
Although there is a need to narrow down the topics of interest and define categories of required or desirable knowledge, the variety of possible areas of expertise is abundant, and potentially any member of the organization can be an expert in some activity or specialized knowledge capable of providing value to the organization Rather than thinking about discarding knowledge we should think about incorporating strategies to take full advantage of expert competition.
In a broad sense, we all have an area of expert competence and we all need help at some time or circumstance of work. However, confusion between discipline or specialty with the concept of expertise is frequent; Being an expert does not necessarily imply being “wise” in the subject or subject, but knowing a little more about the subject, which is recognized by the peers and therefore, is being able to contribute to the objectives of the organization. (cf. All experts 2006)
Although a review of the literature available on the web has been made, there are many pending, so that this is not the end of a necessary reflection but the beginning of a shared work. These lines are intended to contribute to the debate aimed at specifying concepts and motivating interest in the development of better tools to share knowledge, without forgetting that the best tool available, will be completely useless if the environment does not exist and the willingness to share
Starting from the premise proposed by José Luis Lara (2002): […] for organizations to be driven to innovate, they must be subjected to a variable degree of incitement to change, then this proposal is opened as an open provocation to collaboration and intensive knowledge management.
Endnotes
- In the colloquial language there is talk of expertise or expertise to refer to the condition of being a shower or experienced in a certain matter or subject, however in both cases consultations were made in dictionaries and it was confirmed that these terms do not appear registered, there is Expertise word but its meaning is that of expert evidence. The word expertise that denotes wisdom, practice, experience and skill in some subject was found useful, while expert is also the adjective to signify the condition of being wise, skilled, skilled, skilled, practical in some subject.
- Knowledge maps are graphical representations that allow identifying what knowledge is available in the organization, where they are located and who are the bearers of them. They represent the flows of knowledge, subjects and relationship nodes, facilitators and barriers that explain the processes of creation, distribution, application and reuse of knowledge in an organization
- The term knowledge should not be confused with data or information. Data is the representation of a fact so that it can communicate, while information is the significance acquired by the data when they are placed in an appropriate context and according to an application purpose. Knowledge is the result of processing information and incorporating the intelligence and structure required to allow action and problem solving. The knowledge so that it can be documented requires its conversion into information and structured data that can be represented, stored in print or as a digital record.
- Knowledge grows when we share it, unlike the capital that runs out if we share it.
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